The idea of the atom

Models and mechanisms of how particles and other materials behave have been proposed for thousands of years. Especially in the last few centuries, however, these models have been constantly improved and specified. In the following chapters, a cross section of these developments will be presented, leading all the way to our present model of the atom, which will be explained along with all of the laws that govern its behaviour.

The first model of matter which included elements and atoms was proposed in ancient times. The Greek philosopher Leukippos (around 500-400 B.C.) and his student Democritus (around 460-370 B.C.) were the first to describe the matter present in our world as a collection of atoms (Greek: indivisible). Their theory was based on the idea that if any body is divided into its smallest constituent parts, at some point the parts are so small that they can no longer be divided. They used the word indivisible to describe this remaining matter. According to this theory, atoms are small bodies which are not able to be divided.

Atoms of different materials must differ in their composition and size. The characteristics of materials must therefore be determined by differences in their individual atoms: differences in their size, grouping and mutual arrangement. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Greek atomic model was expanded upon and specified by J. Dalton (1766-1844). According to his theory, elements are composed of small particles called atoms

Atoms of individual materials differ in their mass and size. During chemical reactions, atoms themselves remain unchanged. Of course, the number and position of individual atoms in the reactant compounds can and does change. They are combined in certain proportions, only to change those combinations and proportions during a reaction. In more advanced atomic models, atoms are composed of a nucleus and electrons.

The atom, of course, is composed of elementary particles. In an atom’s nucleus are neutrons (uncharged) and positively charged protons. Atoms of the same element always contain the same amount of protons. Only the number of neutrons can differ slightly (in isotopes). Isotopes are actually different atoms of the same element differing only in the number of neutrons they contain and their atomic weight. Otherwise, isotopes of one element generally have the same chemical and physical characteristics as the element itself.

The average atomic nucleus is relatively small compared to the atom itself, but it makes up the greatest part of an atom’s mass. The mass of protons and neutrons has been designated with the relative number 1. The number of protons in an atom determines its atomic number. This number is also used to symbolize the atom, or element, in the periodic table of the elements. (hydrogen (H)=1, Helium (He)=2, etc.). Electrons (negatively charged particles) revolve around the nucleus of an atom in electronic orbitals, designated areas where they can be found. Their mass is relatively small – 1/1836 the mass of protons and neutrons. There is the same amount of electrons as the number of protons in the nucleus. For this reason, every atom, in its natural state, is neutral.

Atoms can lose one or more of their electrons. When they do, they become positively charged. Or, atoms can gain electrons, which makes them negatively charged. When an atom gains or loses electrons, it is called an ion. The outer reaches of an atom, its shell, away from the inner nucleus and where electrons are found, makes up the greatest part of its size. This area is mostly empty space. Electrons move in certain designated areas around the atomic nucleus. Some electrons are closer to the nucleus than others (inner orbital, or shielded electrons). Others are further away from the nucleus (outer orbital electrons).

The nucleus of an atom does not change during a chemical reaction. For this reason, it does not appear to be very important. Of course, an atom’s electrons determine its chemical behaviour (mostly these are outer orbital electrons).

The energy of a specific electron is defined with the help of both letters and numbers, according to the orbital where the electron is found. Of great importance is an electron’s distance from the nucleus. The exact placement of an atom’s electrons at any one time is impossible to determine, because location and direction of an individual electron are not able to be calculated (The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle).

The more accurately we try to determine the location of a specific electron, the less accurate is our ability to determine its direction. Why? Because it is impossible to tell which direction that electron will move in the moment we have determined its location. Unfortunately, only the probability of where an electron might be found can be calculated. On the other hand, if we know the direction an electron is moving, its exact location becomes impossible to locate. The spacial limitation, more simply the area where an electron of a certain energy can be found with greatest probability, is called the atomic orbital.

Duality

Because atoms and their electrons cannot be directly investigated, reality at the atomic level is more or less unknown. From atomic characteristics which can be observed, however, atomic models can be made. The accuracy of these models is seen in their ability to explain certain phenomena. Often, these incredibly small particles show characteristics that are not usual in the macro world we live in. Electrons themselves are capable of a certain principle of duality – as is light: the duality of waves and particles. This means that on the one hand, an electron can behave as a sort of particle beam, a bit like a ray gun. On the other hand, electrons also show a purely wave-like character. Electrons are not, however, one or the other, because these two characteristics are contradictory. Yet we need both concepts to be able to describe an electron’s behaviour. The wave-like mechanical atomic model comes from the description of the outer shell of an atom and the wave-like characteristics of electrons.

Quantum numbers

In the atomic model of Niels Bohr (Danish physicist), an electron cloud swarms around the nucleus of an atom. Electrons are allowed to move only in certain orbitals around the nucleus. The individual orbitals represent a certain amount of energy. All of the electrons in one orbital are seen as containing the same amount of energy.

The energy of an electron is given by a quantum number n. The larger this number is, the more energy an electron contains, and the further away it is from the nucleus.

When an electron is excited to a more distant orbital from the nucleus, one with a higher energy, a certain energy must be added to the electron (a quantum). When an electron moves from a higher energy orbital to a lower energy orbital, closer to the nucleus, energy must be omitted in the form of radiation (heat, light or in the form of a different type of electromagnetic energy. With the help of the main quantum number, we are able to figure the maximum number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom.

The number of an atom’s electrons can be calculated using the formula 2n2, where n is the main quantum number. More recent atomic models use other quantum numbers to describe an atom and its electrons. A secondary quantum number, designated as l, represents the spin of an electron, or its angular momentum. That means its geometric spatial orientation. This quantity is decisively important in order to explain the arrangement of certain chemical bonds in the atoms of a compound.

The energy of a specific electron is defined mainly by the main quantum number n, and to a lesser degree by its secondary quantum number l. From the position of the energy level of an electron, from its orbital (where the electron moves) compared to the outer magnetic field, the magnetic quantum number m (also called the direction quantum number) can be determined. According to the value of m, orbitals can be divided on the basis of their energy.

There is one s orbital (spherical symmetrically placed around the nucleus), three p orbitals (which look like three dumb-bells protruding from the nucleus in their centers and and pointing out in three directions), five d orbitals (four-leaf structures lying between the p orbitals) and seven f orbitals. Within the individual types (s, p, d, f) are individual orbitals of the same energy. If we take the electron to be a small particle, we can imagine it to be spinning on its own axis, to the left or to the right. The direction of its rotation is termed its spin, and is determined by the quantum number s, for spin. With the help of these four quantum numbers, each and every electron can be exactly described.

Stable electron orbitals

The assignment of electrons to their individual orbitals is termed electron configuration. According to the Pauli principle (Swiss-American physicist), no more than two electrons can be found in one orbital at one specific time.

Orbitals are occupied by electrons from lowest energy orbital to highest energy orbital (in the order s, p, d, f). First of all, every orbital of a specific energy is occupied by one electron. Then, an orbital of opposite spin moves into an orbital to join the first electron. Once there are two electrons in one orbital, it is filled completely. The two electrons are called an electron pair. Individual electrons are called unpaired electrons. In each element of the main group, all s and p orbitals are filled gradually, as electrons are added. For the elements of other groups, the d orbitals are filled.

Ionisation energy

Electrons have a certain amount of energy associated with them, and this energy determines their distance from the nucleus. If energy is added to an electron, an electron can increase its distance from the nucleus, or can even escape from the nucleus. In the latter case, an atom becomes a positively charged ion. The amount of energy which is necessary for an electron to leave the atom is called its ionization energy. Therefore, the ionisation energy necessary to free an electron in an outer orbital from an atom is less than for an electron which is closer to the nucleus.

The density of an element is a relative number given by how the matter of an element is arranged around its atoms, on average. The density of different elements can only be compared given the same volume. Density is a function of both mass and volume.

Density units are often given as kg/m3 or g/cm3. The densities of a number of materials are included in tables.

At first glance, many elements share a number of characteristics. A closer comparison of those characteristics, including colour, state of matter (solid, liquid, gas), odour, flammability and density, allow substances to be distinguished one from another. When substances’ characteristics are compared and contrasted, they can be divided into groups. The most important groups that chemistry deals with are: acids, bases, oxides, salts, metals, hydrocarbons and polymers (materials with a great number of atoms which repeat their patterns in a periodic way.

Molecules and Moles

The smallest possible chemical unity is formed by the union of a number of atoms – a compound – also called a molecule. If we want to produce a certain amount of a material, we choose whether to produce that certain amount as a function of its mass, volume or even amount of individual particles.

In chemistry, we use the variable (n) very often as a measure of the amount of a certain substance. One unit of a material is called a mole. We can imagine this amount of a substance as a chemical dozen, an even unit, so to speak. And just like a dozen, or 12, one mole is always equal to a certain number of particles. Of course, this number is more than 12, because of the minute size of atoms and molecules. It would indeed be difficult to count in multiples of 12.

One mole is given as 6.022 x 10 23 particles. This seemingly arbitrary amount of particles is actually based on a chemical truth, using carbon (chemical symbol C), because this element plays one of, if not the, most important role in chemistry. Twelve grams (g) of the element carbon contains exactly 1 mole of atoms. Why is the number of smallest particles so important in chemistry? The answer to this question has to do with the nature and types of chemical reactions. During a chemical reaction, particles interact with one another, often combining to form a new substance. For example, water is actually the combination, or a compound, of two atoms, two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. The mass of the two reacting elements would not be enough to ensure a sufficient amount of each element for combination, because oxygen atoms are significantly heavier than hydrogen atoms.

In the laboratory, a chemist cannot determine the amount of a substance by deduction, or by some type of instinct. The amount of a substance can, however, be determined by its mass, which directly relates to the amount of particles a certain amount of substance contains. The quotient of a certain amount of mass (m) and an amount of substance (n) is given by the molar mass (M), with the unit number of grams per one mole.

Molar mass is determined by the sum of the masses of the individual atoms in a molecule. Atomic masses are easily attainable, from the periodic table of the elements. (Hydrogen (H) 1g/mol, Helium (He) 4 g/mol, Lithium (Li) 7g/mol, Beryllium (Be) 9 g/mol, etc.). See the periodic table for more atomic masses.

The molar mass of water (H2O) is 18 grams per mole: 1g/mol for each hydrogen atom (H) and 16 g/mol for the one oxygen atom (O). The molecule is composed of three atoms (2H + 1 O), or more simply: three parts, or atoms, join to make one larger compound, or molecule. The amount of particles corresponding to 1 mole of water is 6.022 . 10 23 molecules of water.

Individual atoms of each element have the same mass. The variable masses of individual molecules is a function of the bonding capabilities of those molecules’ constituent atoms, and their atomic masses.

Matter, or mass, is neither created nor destroyed. If during a chemical reaction a compound, or other products of that reaction have less mass than the original reactant materials, most likely one of the products is not easily detectable – possibly an invisible, odourless gas, or some other byproduct of the reaction. If a scientist accurately compares the mass of all reactant materials with the mass of all products produced, the same amount is always present on both sides. Matter is neither created nor destroyed; it can only change form.

A mixture of a solid material dissolved in a liquid is called a solution. These mixtures can be measured by their volumes. The amount of a material dissolved in the same volume of a solution can vary from one mixture to another, however. To determine the amount of a dissolved substance in a solution, we use the chemical formula concentration (symbol: c), a measure of its variable “strength”. The units of concentration of a solution are amount of moles dissolved in one litre of solution. Substance concentration is indicated as the concentration of a substance in solution. It is the quotient equal to the amount of a material dissolved in a certain volume of a solution (12 g of carbon (C) in one liter of water has a concentration of 1 mol/l). We call this amount of solution a one molar solution of carbon, and abbreviate it as 1 M.

In order to determine the molar concentration of a solution, or in the case that a chemist might need to prepare a solution of a given molar concentration, it is necessary to calculate the mass of each material. The mass of the dissolved substance is calculated from the necessary material mass and mass of one mole of the material. The amount of a substance in a solution can be calculated from the concentration of a substance and the volume of the solution.

For example, for a 1 molar solution of table salt we need 58.5 g of table salt in 1 l of water. Table salt is made of one part sodium and one part chlorine. The chemical formula of this compound is NaCl. The mass of one mole of NaCl is 58.5 g, because sodium (Na) has a molar mass of 23 g and chlorine (Cl) an atomic mass of 35.5 g. Add the two together (23 + 35.5 = 58.5). The mass of one mole is easily attainable from the periodic table of the elements.

A certain molar concentration does not tell how much volume a certain solution contains. That is, a 1 molar solution does not guarantee that there is 1 liter of solution. Rather, a 1 M solution implies that the ratio of dissolved substance (solute) to volume of substance dissolved in (solvent). In our example with table salt, then, rather than use 58.5 g of NaCl with 1 l of water, we could have just as easily used 29.25 g of NaCl with 0.5 l of water, or 117 g of salt with 2 l of water.

Chemical symbols

Substances and chemical reactions can be denoted in a simple and straightforward way in chemistry. A system of symbols, abbreviations and chemical formulas is used, and these are all internationally recognised – thanks to a committee of international experts who have agreed upon these symbols. At first, however, somewhat abstract symbols were used. Eventually, circular symbols to denote compounds were used. Today’s system was introduced by J. J. Berzeliem (Swedish chemist 1779-1848). According to this system, each element was assigned a chemical symbol, usually taken from its Latin or Greek equivalent (for example Magnesium – Mg or oxygen = Oxygenium – O).

Elements are made up of small particles of one and only one kind. We call these particles atoms. In some elements, atoms combine in their natural state, in twos or even more, to form a compound of the given element. In this case, the atoms of one element are joined tightly together, thereby attaining an increased chemical stability. We call these combinations molecules and molecular substances. Molecules are often the smallest building blocks of

gaseous or fluid substances. For example, atoms of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen are always joined together, in pairs, two each. There are molecules, however, that are made of different elements. The compound ” water ” is made of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen.

One important foundation of chemical terminology is the concept of using small numbers after a chemical element symbol to indicate number of atoms, called stoichiometry. In the language of chemical symbols, an element symbol is often combined with these numbers, and is called a chemical formula. A formula, then, is made up of the element symbols that a certain compound is composed of. And, after each element symbol, the number of atoms of that element contained in the compound is given. This number is smaller than the element symbol. Ones, as in one atom of an element, are understood, and therefore not written, as in the chemical formula of water, H2O, understood as two atoms of hydrogen, and one atom of oxygen. Water is therefore not written as H2O1.

The formula of a compound characterises the material it represents and denotes its constituent elements, the elements it is made of. At the level of individual particles, the formula symbolises the molecule and gives the amount of all atoms in the molecule, and their ratio to one another. The ratio of the number of individual atoms in a molecule can be calculated for example with the help of the mass ratio of the individual elements and their atomic masses.

Stoichiometry says that the atoms in a compound are mutually bonded in unchanging ratios.

1. Dalton’s law: The ratio of the masses of two elements which are bonded together in one molecule can be given as the ratio of one whole number to another.

2. The law of definite proportions: Every compound contains elements in a certain specific and constant mass ratio.

3 The law of consistent proportions: Elements combine together in certain specific ratios of masses or in whole number amounts.

How many atoms of one element join together with how many atoms of another element can be determined by experiment and calculation. The true chemical formula of a number of compounds can be determined rather simply, however, if we know the bonding possibilities of individual elements (their valence). This is the deciding factor for individual elements. For example, once we know the bonding possibilities of an element, we can figure out quickly how many hydrogen atoms could conceivably bond to it. The valence of an element when bonding with hydrogen is given by the amount of unpaired electrons in the outer shell of its electron cloud (the cloud made up of electrons moving at certain levels or in certain orbitals around the nucleus). For example: in water (H2O) one oxygen atom (O) bonds with two hydrogen atoms (H) and therefore has a valence of 2.

In chemical bonds, elements, or their atoms, are not only joined in whole numbers, but their mass ratios also remain constant. For example, in the chemical reaction of iron (Fe) se sulfur (S) iron sulfide (FeS) is formed. The ratio of the number of individual atoms is 1:1. The ratio of masses of the individual atoms is determined from the atomic masses of sulphur and iron, and is 1.45 (7:4).
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On his website, a certain Mr. X has a standing offer of $250,000 to anyone who can give any empirical evidence (scientific proof) for Evolution.

To prove Evolution, there are three main subjects to consider, being Knowledge, Science and Belief. Knowledge is about facts. Science is about explaining and working with facts. Belief is about non-facts. Atheist and religious fanatics, being people you can’t discuss common sense with, combine these three subjects in one, which they call “Truth”. Not A truth, but THE indisputable Truth. If Mr. X would belong to this category, he might want to pay me for deleting this article, something I surely would consider.

Knowledge

We can be rather short about this one, unless someone can tell us what energy, matter and time is. Especially time is a great mystery, but it stands central in debates about Evolution versus Creation. How long time ago happened what, how much time did what development take, etc? Matter is a great mystery also, no scientist ever saw an electron as yet, just traces it leaves behind in various pieces of equipment. We only know the mass and electrical charge of an electron, but nothing about its internal structure. Yet, electrons are the main agents in the forming of chemical bonds, matter and life as we know it. Nobody ever “saw” energy either. We only know forms of energy, matter being one of them (Einstein). We can observe those various forms, but we don’t know what the H2O of energy is. In fact, when it comes to the basic components of Creation and Evolution, we know absolutely NOTHING.

Science

Scientific facts are observed behaviors of matter and energy as functions of time, which can be described in formulas that we can work with. These “facts” however can change, some even become invalid as new discoveries are made and new “facts” emerge. The only “complete” science is that of mathematics. What is known of it since thousands of years will never change, never become invalid. Only more sophisticated methods can be developed, but for the rest, mathematics are stable as a rock.

Belief

When knowledge and science fail, Belief is left to explain whatever. It is therefore very hard to prove any Belief, or to deny it, because it is not based on knowledge and/or science. Nevertheless, we have also common sense, which allows us to judge the probability of something to be true. This is the field of philosophy, which is considered a science, but it is not an exact one and therefore it can be categorized under Beliefs. Religion is a special category within Belief, because it usually is dogmatic. In religions indisputable postulates are made to be “facts” and “truths”, which rules out “common sense”. Hence, it is rather useless to want to prove whether God exists or not. Those who try to do that, are no longer dealing with religion, but with science. If God ever would become a scientific fact, we can close all holy books and churches, fire all priests and instead ask a computer what God’s will is, by letting it make “divine” calculations. If it then answers with “syntax error”, the computer proves that God does not exist – a scientific fact.

However, there are false gods and false beliefs, which can be discovered by “common sense”. Common sense must be based on a logic that everybody can agree with and this is not always the case, so even “common sense” is not always “convincing”.

This brings us on Mr. X’s first event to prove, without the need of a God Creator:

1. Time, space, and matter came into existence by themselves.

Because we don’t know what energy, matter and time is, there can be no empirical prove on the origin of them, but theories only. What we can say about time though is, that nothing can be infinitely old, because whatever would be (God), cannot become a second older than it is already – you can’t add anything to infinity. From this follows that time does not flow from the present into the future, but the other way around, from the present into the past and the future does not exist. This means that only the present moment exists and indeed, tomorrow never comes, it is always today and always right now. The present moment then becomes ageless and so both Creation and God are ageless. In that case there is no origin in time, but in Evolution only, changing the conditions of the present moment. This neither includes nor excludes a God Creator, just the perception of God would become a fundamentally different one from the Abrahamic view of the Bible. We are thus totally confined to the field of belief and speculation here and therefore I deem this point to be invalid in respect to proving Evolution.

Mr. X’s second event to prove:

2. Planets and stars formed from space dust.

Mr. X requires an empirical prove. In my Oxford Dictionary, “empirical” is defined as: based on observation, experience, or experiment, not on theory.

As to observation, we have a very interesting physical law, called the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The interesting thing is this context is, that this is a purely observational law. This means that it is not based on any physical principle, but on observations only. Hence If I can prove Evolution on the basis of the Second Law, Mr. X has to accept it as valid.

The Second law has great significance for the mechanisms behind Evolution. Evolution is characterized by an almost infinite number of random events, bringing about unpredictable results over time, the more unpredictable, the longer the time of a certain process of consideration is. It is here where the Second Law comes in, based on our observations that random events indeed do occur. Random events relate to disorder, the very subject of the Second Law in terms of entropy. The creationists say that the Second Law predicts that everything develops to greater states of disorder (= higher entropy), which then erroneously is seen as to be in conflict with the high order we observe in the structure of the galaxies, planetary systems and the extremely high organized organisms of life, that thus must be created by God. This point of view thus rejects the Second Law, as it goes against God’s creative order.

A correct understanding of entropy lets one see that organized matter instead causes an increase of entropy. For example, the Sun (or any star) was formed by gravity from a chaotic interstellar cloud of dust, into a more organized concentrated body, that converts matter into heat energy by nuclear processes. This energy disperses in space far more chaotically than the mass of the original cloud did and thus the entropy (disorder) has increased. Likewise, the chemical energy in food is in the body converted to heat, that is given of to the environment, thus spreading in a more chaotic manner, causing increase of entropy. There is order in chaos!

Evolution leads to more organized forms of matter and so doing increases the total entropy of the universe and is thus a direct consequence of the Second Law. The amazing complexity of these structures is due to the incredibly long time over which they were formed – billions of years of random events, finally resulting into a perfect system, perfect by necessity, in order to exist as the only sustainable solution – anything else would not be possible to last over (long) time. There is no “intelligent” design behind these structures, none that could be proven, nor would be required to explain them.

Hence, already at this point I can say to have proven Evolution on basis of the Second Law

Mr. X’s third event to prove:

3. Matter created life by itself.

The prove of this is largely the same as of event 2, just the scene is a different one. Again, consider the time factor. Hundreds of millions of years of an almost infinite number of random events, chemical experiments, finally resulting in something that was sustainable, again later developing into something that could reproduce itself – life. This reproduction requires chemical energy (food) to be converted to ambient heat, increasing entropy, which was the driving factor behind the probability for it to occur – the Second Law. Evolutional development is about 100 million errors against one success, finally resulting into something that is without errors, “supreme” perfection. Hence, the extreme complexity and perfection of natural systems, including life, talks in favor of Evolution, rather than against it. Anything less perfect could not survive over time. Evolution can do “miracles”, by virtue of the Second Law.

Mr. X’s fourth event to prove:

4. Early life-forms learned to reproduce themselves.

This statement suggests that there could be life forms not learning this. That would be in conflict with the definition of life, being the ability to reproduce itself. Something that cannot reproduce itself, is not life.

Mr. X’s fifth event to prove:

5. Major changes occurred between these diverse life forms (i.e., fish changed to amphibians, amphibians changed to reptiles, and reptiles changed to birds or mammals).

In view of said above, there is nothing peculiar for life to have spread over the planet, by which major changes between the various life forms occurred. Naturally, migrating to new environments with different conditions for survival, needed the migrating life forms to adapt to that. This just follows from common sense. An empirical prove of this event lies alone in the observations of paleontology, fossil findings of previous life forms.
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“Astronomers say they have discovered a giant magnetic field that is coiled like a snake around a rod-shaped gas cloud in the constellation Orion.”
- Ker Than, Space ‘Slinky’ Confirms Theory with a Twist

The helical shape of the magnetic field around the gas cloud in the constellation Orion is believed to be caused by matter in the interstellar cloud moving in a straight line along the length of the filament. When this happens, it causes the magnetic field around the cloud to spiral around in a corkscrew pattern. The researchers were able to detect this spiral shape using the Green Bank Telescope, a radio observatory in Virginia. When helical magnetic fields form in plasma, charged particles move along the field lines generating helical currents.

Kundalini is a Sanskrit term meaning either “coiled up” or “coiling like a snake”. It is derived from the term kundala, which means a “ring” or “coil”. Kundalini energy has often been depicted in ancient drawings as a serpent coiled around the back part of the root chakra in three and a half turns (comparable to a solenoid or a compressed helical current) around the sacrum. The phenomenon of “kundalini awakening” gives rise to the bio-energetic phenomena experienced by meditators. The intensified energy is supposed to originate from an apparent reservoir of subtle bio-energy at the base of the spine.

The central vertical currents in the subtle body (described as Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in the yoga literature) are often depicted in the metaphysical (particularly the yoga) literature as a pair of mutually entangled helical currents with straight currents passing through them. They appear in a familiar structure which resembles the caduceus symbol found in medical literature.

Mutually entangled (double spirals) currents are frequently seen in space and laboratory plasmas. This shows that there is a strong connection between plasma dynamics and the formation of the central kundalini and pranic currents in the (supersymmetric) bioplasma body as described by plasma metaphysics. Helical structures can also be found in dusty (or complex) plasma. This article will describe the processes from the viewpoint of plasma metaphysics as to how this structure forms within the bioplasma body, which is composed of complex plasma. According to plasma metaphysics, a series of (dark) bioplasma bodies are coupled to our carbon-based body. These bioplasma bodies can exist independently of the carbon-based body (except for the lower physical-etheric body which is strongly coupled to the carbon-based body).

Absorption and Self-Organization of Particles within the Bioplasma Body

Kundalini and prana particles are considered super(symmetric) particles in plasma metaphysics. The light prana particles are often said to originate from the Sun while heavy kundalini particles are often said to originate from the (fiery) core of the Earth. These two types of particles form plasmas with different characteristics. Plasmas with different characteristics (in this case different densities and temperatures) has a tendency to self-organize into “cells” with double-layers around themselves. Hence, as kundalini and prana particles are absorbed into the bioplasma bodies (via the plasma vortexes or chakras) they self-organize into pools (or reservoirs) of kundalini and prana particles.

In Chinese Qigong studies, qi is said to accumulate in specific areas – identified as “qi vessels” (also sometimes called “qi reservoirs”). There are eight of these qi vessels; four of the most important vessels lie within the torso – including two at the lower abdominal region. These vessels act like the capacitors in electrical circuits which store electrical charge, according to Dr Yang Jwing-Ming – an authority on Qigong. From the perspective of plasma metaphysics, these vessels are plasma cells containing different types of plasma with double layers around them which act like capacitors.

Plasma metaphysics observes that the center of the bioplasma body (coinciding somewhat with the lower abdomen of the biomolecular body) contains a pool of the highest density charged magnetic plasma composed of heavy particles (this plasma can be identified as kundalini-type particles and ‘Earth qi’). In Chinese Qigong this area, just below the navel, is frequently referred to as the “cauldron”. It is separated from a pool of lower density magnetic plasma of an opposite charge (or polarity) near the head composed of light particles (this plasma can be identified loosely with ‘prana-like’ particles and ‘Heaven qi’). An electric field develops in the bioplasma body due to the separation (or polarization) of the plasma and double layers form. (The thermal potential contributes to this polarization.) V N Tsytovich and his colleagues demonstrated, using a computer model of molecular dynamics, that particles in a plasma can undergo self-organization as electric charges become separated and the plasma becomes polarized.

Formation of Double Layers

A double layer is a structure in plasma that consists of two parallel electrostatic layers with opposite electrical charge. The two sheets of charge cause a strong electric field and a correspondingly abrupt change in voltage (or electrical potential) across the double layer. Various types of instabilities may occur with double layers in the laboratory and in space, often arising due to the formation of beams of ions and electrons.

The production of a double layer requires regions with a significant excess of positive or negative charge, that is, where the quasi-neutrality of the plasma is violated. MHD (i.e. Magneto-hydrodynamics) theory does not include the possibility of parallel electric fields while observations of accelerated particles suggest their existence. In general, quasi-neutrality can only be violated on scales of the order of the Debye length. The thickness of a double layer is of the order of ten Debye lengths, which is a few centimeters in the ionosphere, a few tens of meters in the interplanetary medium, and tens of kilometers in the intergalactic medium. We would therefore expect to see only thin double layers within bioplasma bodies.

Formation of Straight and Helical Pranic Currents within the Bioplasma Body

As a result of the formation of an electric field or potential, within the bioplasma body, a straight (or axial) current carrying the lighter charged particles develop initially. This current generates magnetic fields around itself. Based on basic electromagnetics we know that these magnetic fields will be in the form of circular loops around the straight current. These are often described as circular ‘azimuthal’ magnetic fields around straight ‘axial’ currents.

For plasmas immersed in strong magnetic fields, electric currents tend to flow along the magnetic field lines, which act like wires guiding the current. Charged particles entering the ovoid therefore then flow around the azimuthal magnetic field which approximates a tightly wound (i.e. where the turns are close to each other) solenoid. This causes a dipole magnetic field to form, aligned with the axial current and extending outwards at the north and south poles. Along the central currents, the magnetic field lines are relatively straight and uniform.

The application of an axial magnetic field on the azimuthal magnetic field produces magnetic shear and transforms the azimuthal magnetic field into a helical one. As electric charges stream along the helical field lines, a helical current develops. This situation, where a helical current follows a helical magnetic field, is called a “force-free” configuration. The field-aligned current is called a Birkeland current. The density of the Lorentz force j × B generated by Birkeland currents is zero. Although the magnetic field is not in the lowest energy state possible (the vacuum state), it is in a local minimum energy state and so represents a stable equilibrium.

Formation of Straight and Helical Kundalini Currents within the Bioplasma Body

The kundalini current does not develop as rapidly as the pranic current as kundalini consists of heavier, more massive, particles which are more difficult to accelerate. (The “three and a half turns” at the base of the spine, often cited in the yoga literature, suggests a retarded development of the current.) Hence, it is only when the electric field is amplified that sufficient potential is generated to move these particles. The electrical potential can be amplified through certain meditative practices. When the potential reaches a certain threshold, an axial current will ensue followed by a helical current which will develop in a process similar to the development of the pranic currents. As the kundalini current develops from the base of the spine it will be guided by the helical magnetic field lines and would be seen to be slowly rising by twining around the existing axial current in a spiral. Metaphysicist G S Arundale tells us that “kundala represents a coil, spiral or ring, which expresses the way the inner fire unfolds”. In other words, it describes the spiral or helical path that kundalini particles take as they rise from the base of the spine and twirl around the axial current, guided by the helical magnetic field generated by the axial current. According to experimental metaphysicist Charles Leadbeater, the course through which (kundalini) ought to move is spiral. This field-aligned current of kundalini particles is a Birkeland current.

Plasma Dynamics between Pranic and Kundalini Currents

The potential drop across the double layer will accelerate the charged prana and kundalini particles in opposite directions. (Barbara Brennan has observed a vertical flow of energy that pulsates up and down the center of the body. She calls it “the vertical power current”.) The magnitude of the potential drop determines the acceleration of the charged particles. In strong double layers, this will result in beams or jets of charged particles. In the end, the electric field builds up until the fluxes of particles in either direction are equal, and further charge build up in the two plasmas would be prevented if the system was isolated. However, due to fresh intakes of prana and kundalini particles (via the plasma vortexes or chakras) the process continues within the (living) bioplasma body. (Meditative practices sometimes force the kundalini particles back in the opposite direction towards the direction of the pool of kundalini particles which causes disequilibrium. The reverse path is more difficult because the kundalini current will be repelled by the pool of kundalini particles, with the same charge, at the base of the spine.)

The kundalini axial and helical currents together make up the kundalini composite current. The pranic axial and helical currents together make up the pranic composite current. The kundalini composite current is opposite in polarity to the pranic composite current. This would result in a configuration that would be equivalent to a configuration where both composite currents were carrying particles of the same polarity in the same direction. According to Biot-Savart law, the composite currents would therefore exert a magnetic force attracting each other so that the two axial currents come closer together. They will attract each other even at close distances because of their different polarities – unlike the situation where currents of the same polarity are flowing in the same direction. In the latter case, the currents attract when further apart (because of the magnetic force) but repel each other at close distances (due to the electric charge). The helical components of the composite currents, being attracted to each other, then twine around the axial currents like two snakes wrapped around a tree trunk (the “trunk” being represented by the axial currents which form a flux tube).

Conclusion

As the helical currents transport charged particles in plasma, they will glow like bright twisted snake-like fluorescent lamps twined around a bright axial flux tube. Leadbeater says that kundalini is “luminous as lightning”. When kundalini or prana particles are accelerated during meditative practices, (super) electromagnetic waves are radiated and heat is generated. The identification of a signature feature in magnetic plasma (i.e. the helical pinch) in models of the subtle bodies in the metaphysical literature establishes further that subtle bodies are in fact composed of magnetic plasma – more specifically, a magnetic plasma of high energy particles, including the predicted super(symmetric) particles.

© Copyright Jay Alfred 2007
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Simple Organic Compounds Containing Carbon, Hydrocarbons With Functional Groups

Carbon (C) is present in most compounds, both inorganic and organic. Carbon is fairly unreactive, but at high temperatures is forms compounds with hydrogen, oxygen and various metals. Carbon is the only element with the ability to form chains and cyclical compounds of carbon atoms that line up next to each other in various lengths. This makes carbon the basis of organic chemistry. Thanks to carbon, more than 10 million known organisms survive, even thrive, on this Earth. In addition, there are around 200,000 known inorganic compounds which contain carbon.

Carbon is an important rock-forming mineral, forming carbonates. As carbon dioxide (CO2), it can dissolve in water and is also found in the atmosphere. It is an important component of all plants and animals, of all living organisms. Those organisms which died in the early years of our planet’s history have helped to create a huge supply of carbon and carbon-based fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas.

In organic material which contains carbon, its atoms are bonded together in simple, single bonds (in saturated compounds) or in double and triple bonds (in unsaturated compounds). Carbon chains are the result. The sites which are not used for direct carbon-to-carbon bonding can be used for bonds with hydrogen (hydrocarbons) or with other elements.

According to the type of carbon chain present, we can differentiate between compounds with open chains (linear or branched – aliphatic or acyclic) and cyclic compounds. Aliphatic compounds are categorised in the ranks of branched carbon-containing compounds. Cyclical carbon-containing compounds are distinguished by their carbon atoms being arranged in a circle, in a closed cycle. Of these, the most important are aromatic carbon compounds, beginning with the founding member of the aromatic compounds, benzene (C6H6). In it, carbon atoms form a circle together, with the individual bonds between them showing both single and double bond character, a sort of hybrid between the two. Some of the more important organic compounds are fats, proteins and hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are composed exclusively of atoms of carbon and hydrogen. They are the simplest of all organic compounds. There are three types of homologous families of hydrocarbons: alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. Alkanes contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. Alkenes contain at least one double bond. Alkynes contain at least one triple bond. Most of these types of hydrocarbons can exist with the same chemical formula in different form or chemical structure. When a compound has the same chemical formula but two possible structures, these two structures are called isomers.

Hydrocarbon molecules can also contain what are called functional groups. These are groups which contain at least one atom which is neither carbon nor hydrogen. These functional groups can affect the chemical behaviour of the molecule that contains them by giving that molecule special chemical properties. One example is ethanol – CH3CH2OH. Here, the functional group is -OH, with oxygen the determining atom.

Stereochemistry

Stereochemistry is simply the three-dimensional arrangement of a molecule. Organic molecules of the same chemical formula can have their atoms arranged differently in space. When they do, they often have significantly different chemical properties.

Isomers are those types of compounds which have the same chemical formula but different atomic arrangements in space. Isomers can be divided into stereoisomers and structural isomers.

Stereoisometric molecules change their atomic arrangement as a result of changes in pressure or temperature. All bonds and types of bonds (single, double, triple) are conserved in the same original fashion, however.

Structural isomers have atoms which change their position in a molecule. One example is a linear compound (where all of the carbon atoms are lined up in linear fashion), compared to the same chemical formula compound with a shorter linear structure and branching (chain isomerism). Functional groups can change their position (functional isomerism), or can differ from another isomer in the position of a double or triple bond (bond isomerism).

The number of carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon determines how many forms that compound can take. The number of possible isomers in a compound rises as the number of carbon atoms it contains rises.

Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes

Hydrocarbons are composed exclusively of oxygen and hydrogen. There are three types of homogeneous hydrocarbons (whose members differ by one CH2 unit): alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. The difference between these three groups is in the bond types between carbon. Alkanes form only single bonds, alkenes form double bonds, and in alkynes there is at least one triple bond.

The simplest alkane is methane. It is formed from one atom of carbon which is bonded with four atoms of hydrogen. If a CH2 group is added, the second alkane compound is formed. The naming of alkanes, as with all other hydrocarbons, is based on the rules of IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). Alkane names all end with -ane (from alkan). In front of this ending is a prefix which describes the amount of carbon atoms, corresponding with either a Greek or Latin number. The first four alkanes are named according to historical convention.

Methane: CH4, ethane: C2H6, propane: C3H8, butane: C4H10, pentane: C5H12. The formula of all alkanes can be calculated according to the simple formula CnH2n+2. The number of carbon atoms is the defining factor as to which alkane is which. The alkanes, despite how many carbon atoms they contain, all share some common characteristics. For example, it is typical for all alkanes that they are not highly reactive, they burn well, and they react analogously with halogens in photochemical substitution reactions (exchange reactions). With increasing size of the molecule in the alkane family, alkanes begin to differ from one another in a fundamental way. The first four alkanes are found in the gaseous state of matter. Alkanes containing 5-16 carbon atoms are liquids, and alkanes with 17 or more carbon atoms are solids. Boiling and melting points rise with increasing atomic number.

Branched alkanes are first named according to the amount of carbon atoms they contain in a row. If a radical is contained in an alkaline compound, the -ane ending is replaced by -yl. The branch must be denoted in some way, so as to pinpoint its location on the main carbon chain. For this reason, carbon atoms are numbered from left to right from least to greatest number, so that the branch is arbitrarily assigned the lowest number possible. The main chain has to be the longest one in the molecule. If there are multiple chains in the molecule, they are assigned letters of the alphabet.

Properties and Reactivity

The bond between carbon and hydrogen in an alkane molecule is a weak, polar atomic bond. For this reason, the individual atoms of alkanes carry only a very weak partial charge. These partial charges cancel each other out over the molecule, since it is perfectly symmetrical. The result is a molecule which is non-polar overall. This is not to say one molecule of an alkane does not interact electrostatically with other atoms of its own kind. Weak van der Waals intermolecular forces are found between non-poplar molecules, causing them to mutually attract and repel each other in a weak way. The size of these forces increases as molecule size increases. According to this idea, the characteristics of unbranched alkanes change with increasing size of the carbon chain.

At room temperature, the first four alkanes are found in the gaseous state of matter. Pentane is the first of the liquid alkanes. Until hexane (16), alkane compounds become more and more viscous (parafin oil), because their viscosity rises as the strength of van der Waals forces increases. From heptadecane (17), the alkanes are solids (parafins). Their melting and boiling points rise as a function of the number of carbons in their chains.

Alkanes burn readily. When they do burn, carbon dioxide and water are the products. With increasing chain size, alkanes, given the same amount of oxygen, burn less easily, so that more carbon soot (elementary carbon) is formed with increasing chain size. In alkane molecules, all bonds are said to be saturated. For this reason, alkanes are not very reactive. They do tend to form compounds with halogens.

Van der Waals Forces

Because molecules carry a partial charge, there are forces and attractions between neighbouring molecules. These forces between molecules are very small, but they are big enough to hold the molecule together. The longer the carbon chain of a molecule, the more atoms can take part in these mutual forces, and the greater the resultant attractive force. If the inner forces in smaller alkanes are small, they may not be strong enough to hold the molecule together at room temperature. With increasing carbon chain size, however, these intramolecular forces do increase. At a chain length of 17 carbon atoms, the van der Waals forces are so strong that the individual molecules are held together in the solid state of matter.

Alkenes

Alkenes (olefíns) are unsaturated compounds of carbon with hydrogen which contain one or two double bonds between atoms of carbon. They burn to form carbon soot and carbon dioxide and water. They are more reactive than alkanes because of the fact that they contain double bonds.

Multiple bonds (double, triple bonds) are energetically less advantageous for atoms than corresponding single bonds. For this reason, the atoms in a compound will attempt to break multiple bonds to form single bonds, which are more advantageous energetically. This explains why compounds which contain double and triple bonds are so much more reactive than those which contain single bonds. The alkenes include ethene: C2H4, propene: C3H6, butene: C4H8 and pentene: C5H10. Up to butene, the alkenes occur as gases. Up to hexadecene (C16H32) they are liquids, with higher alkenes found in the solid state of matter. Their general chemical formula is CnH2n.

Alkynes

Alkynes (acetylenes) are unsaturated necyclical hydrocarbons which contain one or more triple bonds between atoms of carbon. When they burn, they tend to form carbon soot. When oxygen is present during burning, high temperatures can be reached. The general formula for alkynes is CnH2a-2. Among these are acetylene: C2H2, propyne: C3H4 and butyne:C4H6.

Alkenes and Alkynes, Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

The carbon atoms of hydrocarbons can be arranged in circles. These cyclical hydrocarbons with single bonds are called cycloalkanes. Benzene and its derivatives, however, are called aromatic hydrocarbons. They contain double bonds. Benzene (first called benzol) was discovered in 1825 by M. Faraday. The name benzol was coined by J. von Liebig. Because benzene is not an alcohol, we call it benzene, not benzol. Benzene is a colourless liquid which refracts light and has an aromatic odour. This characteristic smell was the reason why benzene’s group is called the aromatic compounds. Benzene is less dense than water and does not mix with water. On the other hand, it does mix with, or dissolve in, non-polar solvents. Benzene can itself dissolve fats, resins and rubber. Its boiling point is 80.1° C, lower than that of water. At 5-6° C, benzene solidifies and begins to crystallise. When it is burned, benzene releases carbon soot. In its pure form, benzene can be dangerous for human health. If humans are exposed to benzene for long periods of time, their livers, kidneys and bone marrow can be harmed. Benzene is a carcinogen, but it is a useful material in chemistry, serving as a reactant in the synthesis of a number of organic compounds.

Cyclic Hydrocarbons

Cyclic hydrocarbons can be differentiated from aliphatic hydrocarbons. The cycloalkanes, which are composed of multiple CH2 groups and have no double bonds, form a homologous group of compounds. The first member is cyclopentane. The same as the next member cyclohexane, it is very unstable. Because cycloalkanes are saturated compounds, they, like linear alkanes, are not very reactive. They also share a number of properties. The aromatic hydrocarbons are derived from benzene. Group members have six free valence electrons which are distributed in a circle in the form of a charged cloud. Because of the presence of these valence electrons, we can predict that the reactivity of these aromatic compounds will be similar to other unsaturated hydrocarbons. This time, however, our prediction is incorrect: Benzene is much less reactive than other unsaturated hydrocarbons. Only at high temperatures and in the presence of a catalyst can benzene take on another hydrogen atom. When it does, cyclohexane is the resultant product.

The Molecular Structure of Benzene and Cyclohexane

Benzene (benzol), which was discovered as early as 1825, was described by A.F. Kekule von Stradonitz for the first time in 1865. According to Kekule’s description, benzene was a circular compound with six atoms of carbon. The benzene circle contained three double bonds which alternate with three single bonds. Kekule believed that these double bonds were fixed in one place in the molecule. He thought that there were two isomeres of benzene which existed side-by-side.

Modern models of benzene’s structure show that each carbon atom has associated with it one unpaired electron, a free electron. These unpaired electrons are divided among the circle in the form of a charged cloud. They do not have one certain position in the formation of double bonds. This strange electron arrangement is called mezomeric. It is the reason why benzene is not as reactive as we might expect as compared to other compounds which contain double bonds.

Cyclohexane belongs to the cyclic hydrocarbon family of single-bonded compounds between carbon atoms. It is made of six carbons, each having two hydrogens associated with it.

Noble Gases, Halogen-Substituted Alkanes

The noble gases are found in Group VIII of the main group elements, the A groups. They have a full outermost electron shell and are therefore nearly unreactive. The lighter noble gases do not form compounds at all, and the heavier ones form very few, these being able to be formed and exist only under certain conditions. The elements of the noble gas group include: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Ra). All occur in the gaseous phase of matter. It is possible to produce them through the distillation of condensed air (at temperatures of around -200° C).

The noble gases are not flammable. Helium is used in hot air balloons and other balloons, because it is lighter than air. Radon is the product of the fission reaction of the radioactive element radium. The other noble gases are used in numerous types of lighting because they do not react (light bulbs, neon tubes).

Halogens are found in the seventh main group of elements. They have seven electrons in their outermost electron shell. They can react with other elements and form covalent bonds as well as being able to react to form ionic bonds. They occur in nature in compounds. Smaller halogens, the ones at the top of the periodic table, are more reactive than the halogens in the lower portion of the table, so the smaller halogens can take the place of larger ones in compounds, replacing them or substituting for them. All halogens are poisonous. The halogens are: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At). Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature. Fluorine corrodes and attacks almost all other materials, including glass. Chlorine is highly poisonous. Other halogens are either liquids or solids at room temperature, based on their size, where the largest halogens are solids. In the gaseous form all halogens are highly poisonous.

Substitution Generally

The substitution of halogens with alkanes is another way besides burning that they can react. In a substitution reaction, one atom of hydrogen is replaced by one atom of a halogen. This type of reaction is called a halogenation. The halogenation of alkanes occurs in the presence of light, making it a photochemical reaction.

Methane (C2H4) reacts with chlorine (which occurs as a two-atom molecule Cl2) in the presence of light to produce methyl chloride, CH3Cl, and hydrogen chloride (HCl).

These compounds can be differentiated according to various criteria, including:

1. The type of halogen, for example fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, and iodo-.

2. The type of carbon chain: open, closed, aromatic, saturated, unsaturated.

3. The number of atoms in the halogen: mono-, di- and poly halogen compounds.

The name of the compound is based on the number of carbon atoms present, and where the substitution of a halogen for a hydrogen atom has taken place. Before the name of the hydrocarbon the names of the substitued halogens are given, in alphabetical order if possible. Each carbon atom is assigned a number so as to place the substituted halogen at as low a number as possible. Then the number of the carbon which has been substituted is placed before the halogen prefix. For example:

The carbon chain is always numbered in such a way so that the substituting groups are assigned the lowest numbers. If, however, there are multiple substitutions or some larger group has been substituted, a functional group, that is, it is assigned the lowest possible number.

Fluorine is the first of the halogen group, which means that it is able to substitute for all of the other halogens in a chemical bond. For this reason, hydrocarbons containing fluorine are very stable, non-flammable, and are not poisonous. They are used as an ingredient in aerosol sprays or as the refrigerant liquid in refrigerators, and as a solvent. Their use has become less popular in recent years because of the damage they do in the atmosphere to the ozone layer.
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If you have dreams of being the next Perry Mason then you will need a law degree from an accredited college or university. The problem with most people is that earning a degree in law requires a lot of time that your family may get in the way of. Besides the time requirements that may get in your way, there is also a massive financial requirement from you to just take the courses needed. There is however a silver lining to this rather dark cloud, it is called an online law degree. There are many advantages to getting your law degrees online.

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